The Northern Forest

  This article appears in the Fall 2026 issue

Over the course of three hours of a steady climb, the tree canopy of deciduous sugar maples, yellow birch, and American beech transitioned to a coniferous mix of red spruce and balsam fir before we reached the treeless alpine tundra summit of Camel’s Hump. At 4,083 feet above sea level, my wife, our two teen-aged children, and I took a rest on the nearest exposed granite outcrop. All around us was a breathtaking sea of forestland as far as the eye could see. It may have looked that way too, some 500 years ago, when the Penobscot, Abenaki, Algonquin, and Micmac of northern New England, Canadian Maritimes, and southern Quebec had deep knowledge of the extensive forest comprising their respective homelands.

Not only is today’s view of the Northern Forest (as it has come to be known) awe-inspiring, but it reveals both the source of life-giving essentials—in the form of clean water and clean air—and an economic engine based on a renewable resource. The value of the Northern Forest became readily apparent when, in 1988, the Diamond International Company sold its 1 million acres of forestland in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York to a mix of timber companies, land developers, and conservation groups. The sudden and massive ownership change prompted Congress to recognize the potential threat to wildlife, recreation, and economic stability of such changes in forest ownership by designating 26 million acres spread across four states as the Northern Forest. That is roughly the size of 13 Yellowstone National Parks.

Today the Northern Forest supports an estimated 470 vertebrate species, 2,700 plant species, and countless invertebrate species interwoven within a complex ecologically dynamic network. The sea of contiguous forest exists today due to historical factors and, more recently, the constant work of federal, state, and municipal governments; private nonprofit organizations; individuals; and the commitment of private forest landowners.

Log drive, c. 1915, White River at Sharon, VT. Logs were collected there and sent downriver to the Connecticut River and south to mills in Massachusetts. Vermont Historical Society, Picture File Collection.

The Northern Forest has undergone dramatic and drastic change since colonial settlement, especially in the US portion. Europeans began arriving in the early 1600s, and as their numbers steadily increased by birth and continued immigration, their presence on the land significantly influenced the forest. Initially, small acreages of land were cleared of trees for homesteads, firewood, and subsistence agriculture.

At the same time, major population centers such as Boston and New York placed a demand on the forest for construction material. The exportation of trees from New England’s forest to cities continued for the next 100 years. Then, in the early 19th century, the fashion trend of wool caused much of New England’s remaining forestland to be cleared for sheep pasture. Forestland that had covered more than 90 percent of the New England landscape for millennia was reduced to less than 30 percent by the start of the Civil War.

The loss of so many trees meant its ecological function was profoundly diminished. The remnant forest was no longer a contiguous expanse but a scattering of hedgerows, woodlots, and slopes too steep to farm or log. The associated habitat loss led to extirpations of once commonly-seen wildlife species such as white-tailed deer, wild turkeys, beavers, and even the fabled catamount—not to mention the countless species too small to be readily seen (e.g., insects).

Then, following the Civil War, New England experienced a large-scale exodus as farms were abandoned for lack of available manpower and for more favorable growing conditions in the west. Without the ever-present annual cycle of grazing, tilling, planting, and harvesting on a human timescale, forest resumed its inexorable reclamation march. Beginning with early successional grasses, sedges, and woody shrubs in the late 19th century, by the early 20th century the mid-successional pioneer species (pin cherry, aspen, and white pine) had become well-established. By the late 20th century and to the present day, what is referred to as the late successional climax, species such as sugar maple, red oak, American beech, three varieties of spruce, balsam fir, and hemlock had completely reclaimed much of their natural and historical place on the New England landscape.

The “Height of Agriculture (1830–1880)” diorama at the Harvard Forest Fisher Museum in Petersham, Massachusetts, depicts the peak of New England deforestation. Harvard Forest Fisher Museum.

The intrinsic value of this reforestation process by itself is remarkable. But also consider the impact this transformation had on air and water quality and the forest-based economies that support rural people across the region.

It has also transformed wildlife habitat. Since 1955 economists with the US Fish and Wildlife Service have measured wildlife value by days and dollars spent on wildlife-based recreation, and their findings are significant. The most recent data for Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont indicate that a total of $2.2 billion is spent annually on hunting, fishing, and wildlife photography and watching—much of which depends on forests.

But we’re in danger of losing what we’ve gained. Despite its enormity, the Northern Forest is now shrinking for the first time since the Civil War. This is due primarily to human development in the form of road-, business-, and housing construction and its related infrastructure.

Secondarily, the fragmenting of the forest by these forces invites greater presence of non-native, invasive plants and animals that displace or eliminate native species. In fact, recent research at the University of Vermont (UVM) suggests that today the major cause of tree loss is due to foreign pests and pathogens. Emerald ash borer, beech leaf disease, and hemlock wooly adelgid are but a few of the serious threats the Northern Forest faces. (See also Tony Irving’s “What Does the Future of Our Forests Look Like?” Winter 2024). Co-author of the study, UVM forestry professor Tony D’Amato, noted in a recent UVM School of Natural Resources newsletter that “There’s a lot going on out there that threatens the values that forests provide us. It’s a slow creep, but we’re now seeing bigger areas of impact that don’t bode well for the future values and services that forests provide.”

It is striking how much of the Northern Forest lies in private hands. Estimates are that just under 13 percent is held in public ownership: 745,500 acres in Vermont, according to the USDA Forest Service; 1.3 million acres in New Hampshire; and 1.4 million acres in Maine. This publicly-owned forest is important as a source of accessible recreation opportunities such as hiking, hunting, fishing, and nature photography. At least 32 ski areas are located on municipal, state, or federal forestland. These and other forest-related activities give people an appreciation for the forest and give it a tangible human value that translates to valuing the forest at large.

Fortunately, there are many significant efforts being made to conserve forest land. Some of the more visible work comes from various federal, state, provincial, and municipal governments. In 2016, the Conference of New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers passed Resolution 40-3 which states:

Whereas, the Northern Appalachian-Acadian forest is globally significant as the most intact, contiguous temperate broadleaf forest in the world. The Northeastern coastal forest, including coastal plain, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence lowland forest provide a vital link for migratory birds, including songbirds which depend on Boreal forests during different stages of their lifecycles. Together, these forests span portions of all six New England states and five eastern Canadian provinces. Global climate change is a prominent threat to the long-term health of these vital ecosystems. The spread of invasive species and wildlife disease, often exacerbated by global climate change, is another key threat.

Resolution 40-3 laid the framework for policy and programs among and between governments directed towards forest conservation. Examples include engineering significant wildlife crossings along major highways and secondary roads, collaborating with municipal officials to incorporate forest values into their respective zoning and town planning documents, and legislating tax incentives aimed at forest landowners who maintain their land in a forested condition.

There are also nonprofit, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) whose mission is to conserve the forest on a more local or regional level. Some of these organizations are effective in communicating to legislators and other decision makers the importance of specific areas and individual landowners within their geographic scope of interest. Others, such as land trusts of varying geographic influence (from local to international), focus their energies on acquiring key parcels of land that either serve as critical habitat, link larger forested lands together, or are ecologically remarkable in their own right.

John Austin, director of wildlife conservation at the Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife, recognizes the importance of these collaborative partnerships. “Public ownership remains absolutely essential for broad public access and for conserving large, interconnected landscapes,” he confirms. “It’s the private forest landowners who are the day-to-day stewards of much of the working forest [those managed for commercial purposes] that defines the region.”

Tom Rogers, executive director of Stowe (Vermont) Land Trust, has been involved in conserving important wildlife habitat that links large blocks of the Northern Forest. “Land trusts are often able to work very directly and personally with willing landowners,” he notes, “helping craft conservation solutions that protect forest health, wildlife habitat, recreation, and working lands while keeping properties in private hands. We can also sometimes move more quickly and flexibly than public agencies when important parcels come into play. In many ways, land trusts help connect those worlds, stitching together conserved lands across ownership boundaries and helping maintain the long-term ecological integrity of the broader landscape as development pressures continue to grow.”

The third group deeply associated with viability of the Northern Forest are private landowners. By far the largest owners are the timber and real estate investment trust companies that control approximately 20 percent of private northern forestland. The remaining 80 percent in private hands is held by an estimated 148,000 families and individuals with holdings of up to a thousand acres. Within this group the average ownership is 55 acres with a median of 32 acres. This group accounts for 148,000 decision makers with an impact on the future of the Northern Forest. This is where the role of consulting foresters, both private and public, comes into play.

Ryan Kilborn is a licensed forester with the Meadowsend Consulting Company in New London, New Hampshire. Ryan and his colleagues manage over 100,000 acres of forestland (half of which is under a conservation easement) for 250 clients from 179 towns in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. “My clients come from a wide variety of backgrounds, experience, and interests concerning their forest property,” says Kilborn. “One of my initial steps in our early visits is to listen to them to get a picture of why they own the property and what do they wish to do with it. In many cases regardless of their background, there are options available to them they weren’t aware of or didn’t fully understand.”

The 4,083-foot peak of Camel’s Hump in the

Green Mountains of Vermont. Photo: John Buck.

Countless national and regional surveys of forest landowners regularly report ownership priorities focused on wildlife habitat and being close to nature. To help his clients fully realize those goals, Kilborn encourages them to walk the property with him to see the forest at a level they may not have experienced. He points out invasive plants that are degrading habitat quality for many local and migratory songbirds. He might also identify which trees his client could harvest for their firewood needs while leaving the remaining forest more vigorous and resilient to the effects of climate change. “I encourage my clients to take a hands-on approach with their forest which increases their knowledge base and builds their confidence in making sound management decisions.”

These private forestland owners are the basis for a robust economic engine. The State of Vermont reported in 2021 that its forest economy directly employed over 9,100 people and had $1.4 billion in sales. Total contributions from the sector support nearly 14,000 jobs, with labor income over $500 million and $2.1 billion in sales. When combined with figures from New Hampshire and Maine, the forest economy of the northern New England states directly contributes a total 45,200 jobs directly connected to forest products and $11.5 billion in gross domestic product.

Kate Forer, executive director of Vermont Woodlands Association commented, “This past spring, I attended the Northeast Logger’s Expo in Burlington, and it was one of those events that reminded me just how many different people are connected through our forests. The event brought together loggers, foresters, truckers, families, a wide range of small businesses from axe makers to saw manufacturers, as well as an impressive lineup of forestry equipment [manufacturers] from across the Northeast. It was exciting to see so many people gathered around a shared appreciation for working forests, and the people and industries connected to them.”

A maple sugarbush in the Northern Forest.

Photo: John Buck.

If the Northern Forest is to continue to be the precious natural resource that it is, it can only do so when humans understand that we are very much a part of nature (i.e., the forest) and not apart from it. That is when the forest’s timescale will take precedence over the human timescale. The American writer, environmental activist, and farmer, Wendell Berry, in his essays of Our Only World, stated that, “If we want to save the land, we must save the people who belong to the land. If we want to save the people, we must save the land the people belong to.”

Hiking up Camel’s Hump that fine day wasn’t our first nor was it our last as a family. In thinking back about those experiences, it reaffirmed the notion that people are very much a part of nature, not separate from it. The 20th century conservationist Aldo Leopold noted in his seminal diary, A Sand County Almanac, that without some direct connection to the land he feared that people would “suppose that breakfast comes from a store and heat comes from a furnace.” Following Leopold’s line of thinking then, to experience the Northern Forest, we must have access to it and then make ourselves available to it. Considering the broad diversity of the American population with its wide-ranging interests and understandings, it becomes apparent that a diverse consortium of public and private nonprofit organizations and individuals working together towards a common goal of forest conservation, for its many values, is needed to perpetuate this unique part of the Earth.

First ski tracks. The Northern Forest has important economic benefit as a recreational resource. Photo: John Buck.

John Buck is a retired state wildlife biologist living in Waterbury Center, Vermont. He runs the family’s 70-acre maple syrup farm along with his children and grandchildren.